The possession of great powers no doubt carries with it a contempt for mere external show.
--JAMES A. GARFIELD.
Friday, August 17, 2012
Those who make the worst use of their time.......
Those who make the worst use of their time are the first to complain of its brevity.
Jean de La Bruyère
Jean de La Bruyère
Thursday, August 16, 2012
Responsibility for doing good!
Every person is responsible for all the good within the scope of his abilities, and for no more.
--GAIL HAMILTON.
--GAIL HAMILTON.
Wednesday, August 15, 2012
Others judge us by......
We judge ourselves by what we feel capable of doing, while others judge us by what we have already done.
--LONGFELLOW.
--LONGFELLOW.
Tuesday, August 14, 2012
True freedom, real independence!
Freedom, independence? But from what? From other humans?
Can we be free while their are walls separating us from others like us, other humans?
Can there be freedom while there are ideologies that differentiate humans into us and them?
Does freedom and independence requires separation and demarcation into smaller groups?
Or does true freedom requires that we overthrow every system, every dogma, every false ideology that wants to controls in the name of lies. True freedom requires that we demolish the state, the caste, the color, the geographic location barriers. Nationalism is a Matrix that controls us, projects false simulations into our subjective world. We must revolt against all systems of divisions.
These are emotionally charged words used by those who would benefit from getting to rule those who get entrapped, ensnared by the magic of nationalism. They need sheep docile enough to be led to the new enclosure. We humans share almost identical DNA, we are the same species, we are one. We can live together, without guns pointed in each others directions. The whole planet belongs to us, each one of us. Why confine to smaller piece of land?
True freedom would be when we have overthrown all these false barriers, broken through all the Berlin Walls and embraced the humanity, all of it. That would the true freedom, independence from all devices of divisions.
To humanity then!
To our unity then!
To greater love then!
Raise your fist in air,
fill your lung with as much air as it can hold,
and yell with as much force and emotional power as you can,
"FREEDOM"
and march forward,
let more join in,
let the true "REVOLUTION" begin,
one final act of independence!
Can we be free while their are walls separating us from others like us, other humans?
Can there be freedom while there are ideologies that differentiate humans into us and them?
Does freedom and independence requires separation and demarcation into smaller groups?
Or does true freedom requires that we overthrow every system, every dogma, every false ideology that wants to controls in the name of lies. True freedom requires that we demolish the state, the caste, the color, the geographic location barriers. Nationalism is a Matrix that controls us, projects false simulations into our subjective world. We must revolt against all systems of divisions.
These are emotionally charged words used by those who would benefit from getting to rule those who get entrapped, ensnared by the magic of nationalism. They need sheep docile enough to be led to the new enclosure. We humans share almost identical DNA, we are the same species, we are one. We can live together, without guns pointed in each others directions. The whole planet belongs to us, each one of us. Why confine to smaller piece of land?
True freedom would be when we have overthrown all these false barriers, broken through all the Berlin Walls and embraced the humanity, all of it. That would the true freedom, independence from all devices of divisions.
To humanity then!
To our unity then!
To greater love then!
Raise your fist in air,
fill your lung with as much air as it can hold,
and yell with as much force and emotional power as you can,
"FREEDOM"
and march forward,
let more join in,
let the true "REVOLUTION" begin,
one final act of independence!
Scientists unravel 'other' malaria parasite's DNA code
Scientists unravel 'other' malaria parasite's DNA code - Channel NewsAsia
Scientists said Sunday they had unravelled the genetic codes of parasites responsible for the bulk of malaria cases outside Africa, and found they were scarily diversified and may be harder to kill.
Outside of Africa, P. vivax accounts for half of all malaria cases, mainly in the Middle East, the Western Pacific and Central and South America.
P. vivax is more resilient than its deadlier, tropical cousin, and can stay in remission for longer and tolerate cooler climates.
In 2010, malaria infected about 216 million people and claimed an estimated 655,000 lives -- mainly in Africa where a child dies of the disease every minute, says the World Health Organisation.
Scientists said Sunday they had unravelled the genetic codes of parasites responsible for the bulk of malaria cases outside Africa, and found they were scarily diversified and may be harder to kill.
Outside of Africa, P. vivax accounts for half of all malaria cases, mainly in the Middle East, the Western Pacific and Central and South America.
P. vivax is more resilient than its deadlier, tropical cousin, and can stay in remission for longer and tolerate cooler climates.
In 2010, malaria infected about 216 million people and claimed an estimated 655,000 lives -- mainly in Africa where a child dies of the disease every minute, says the World Health Organisation.
Monday, August 13, 2012
Piezoelectric virus M13 bacteriophage could power your mobile phone | Mail Online
Piezoelectric virus M13 bacteriophage could power your mobile phone | Mail Online
A team at the University of California, Berkeley has discovered how to generate electricity from a virus known as M13 bacteriophage.
The virus possesses a property known as piezoelectricity, which means it can translate mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Most mobile phone microphones are piezoelectric because they need to convert energy from sound waves into electrical output that can be transmitted and then translated back into sound waves at the other end of the line.
These piezoelectric components are made out of heavy, toxic metals such as lead and cadmium, according to bioengineer Seung-Wuk Lee.
However, many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids are also piezoelectric.
M13 bacteriophage has the ability to generate electricity when compressed but lacks the toxicity of the traditional elements.
Lee and his colleagues found that the pencil-shaped M13 is potentially a perfect energy source because the virus is not harmful to humans.
It is also cheap and easy to make to the extent that scientists can get trillions of viruses from a single flask of infected bacteria.
To improve the electricity generating power of M13, Lee's team tweaked the amino acid content of the virus's outer protein coat by adding four negatively charged glutamate molecules.
The team stacked sheets of viruses on top of one another to amplify the piezoelectric effect.
The scientists found that when they attached a one square centimetre virus film to a pair of gold electroodes and pressed firmly on one of those electrodes, the film produced enough electricity to light up a liquid crystal display of the number '1'.
The result was 400 millivolts of power, or about one quarter the energy of a AAA battery.
A team at the University of California, Berkeley has discovered how to generate electricity from a virus known as M13 bacteriophage.
The virus possesses a property known as piezoelectricity, which means it can translate mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Most mobile phone microphones are piezoelectric because they need to convert energy from sound waves into electrical output that can be transmitted and then translated back into sound waves at the other end of the line.
These piezoelectric components are made out of heavy, toxic metals such as lead and cadmium, according to bioengineer Seung-Wuk Lee.
However, many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids are also piezoelectric.
M13 bacteriophage has the ability to generate electricity when compressed but lacks the toxicity of the traditional elements.
Lee and his colleagues found that the pencil-shaped M13 is potentially a perfect energy source because the virus is not harmful to humans.
It is also cheap and easy to make to the extent that scientists can get trillions of viruses from a single flask of infected bacteria.
To improve the electricity generating power of M13, Lee's team tweaked the amino acid content of the virus's outer protein coat by adding four negatively charged glutamate molecules.
The team stacked sheets of viruses on top of one another to amplify the piezoelectric effect.
The scientists found that when they attached a one square centimetre virus film to a pair of gold electroodes and pressed firmly on one of those electrodes, the film produced enough electricity to light up a liquid crystal display of the number '1'.
The result was 400 millivolts of power, or about one quarter the energy of a AAA battery.
Sunday, August 12, 2012
Parasites may get nastier with climate swings: study | Reuters
Parasites may get nastier with climate swings: study | Reuters
Parasites look set to become more virulent because of climate change, according to a study showing that frogs suffer more infections from a fungus when exposed to unexpected swings in temperatures.
Parasites, which include tapeworms, the tiny organisms that cause malaria and funguses, may be more nimble at adapting to climatic shifts than the animals they live on since they are smaller and grow more quickly, scientists said.
Increases in climate variability are likely to make it easier for parasites to infect their hosts
A U.N. panel of experts says that global warming is expected to add to human suffering from more heatwaves, floods, storms, fires and droughts, and have effects such as spreading the ranges of some diseases.
Based on factors including their size, life expectancy and factors such as their metabolisms, the scientists said frogs probably took 10 times as long as fungus to get used to unexpected temperature changes, a process known as acclimation.
Parasites look set to become more virulent because of climate change, according to a study showing that frogs suffer more infections from a fungus when exposed to unexpected swings in temperatures.
Parasites, which include tapeworms, the tiny organisms that cause malaria and funguses, may be more nimble at adapting to climatic shifts than the animals they live on since they are smaller and grow more quickly, scientists said.
Increases in climate variability are likely to make it easier for parasites to infect their hosts
A U.N. panel of experts says that global warming is expected to add to human suffering from more heatwaves, floods, storms, fires and droughts, and have effects such as spreading the ranges of some diseases.
Based on factors including their size, life expectancy and factors such as their metabolisms, the scientists said frogs probably took 10 times as long as fungus to get used to unexpected temperature changes, a process known as acclimation.
Life is pain!
Life is pain, highness. Anyone who says differently is selling something.
William Goldman
William Goldman
In search of the gene that leads to long life - AJW by The Asahi Shimbun
In search of the gene that leads to long life - AJW by The Asahi Shimbun
Sirtuin gene research emphasizes gene activity in the aging process. Sirtuin are a class of proteins that improve intracellular metabolic efficiency in the various organs of living creatures while also working to enhance resistance to stress.
Additionally, sirtuin are not the only genes thought to be related to aging and longevity. For example, the protein known as mTOR and its gene appear to be involved with a mechanism that works to prevent aging by restricting caloric intake. Results of an experiment reported a mouse made to excessively express the klotho gene, which was discovered by Japanese researchers, lived 30 percent longer than normal.
Something considered to have a high probability of being a harmful substance that promotes cellular aging is "active oxygen." Active oxygen is produced by mitochondria (tiny membrane-enclosed organs) within the cells when they use oxygen to produce energy for cell activity. Other causes of production include external sources such as stresses in daily life and ultraviolet rays. Active oxygen is believed to possess toxicity that is damaging to genes and cells and leads to a deterioration in cell function. It is said that the balance between active oxygen occurrence and the functions designed to defend against it is what determines the speed of the aging process.
Sirtuin gene research emphasizes gene activity in the aging process. Sirtuin are a class of proteins that improve intracellular metabolic efficiency in the various organs of living creatures while also working to enhance resistance to stress.
Additionally, sirtuin are not the only genes thought to be related to aging and longevity. For example, the protein known as mTOR and its gene appear to be involved with a mechanism that works to prevent aging by restricting caloric intake. Results of an experiment reported a mouse made to excessively express the klotho gene, which was discovered by Japanese researchers, lived 30 percent longer than normal.
Something considered to have a high probability of being a harmful substance that promotes cellular aging is "active oxygen." Active oxygen is produced by mitochondria (tiny membrane-enclosed organs) within the cells when they use oxygen to produce energy for cell activity. Other causes of production include external sources such as stresses in daily life and ultraviolet rays. Active oxygen is believed to possess toxicity that is damaging to genes and cells and leads to a deterioration in cell function. It is said that the balance between active oxygen occurrence and the functions designed to defend against it is what determines the speed of the aging process.
Saturday, August 11, 2012
BBC News - The power of intermittent fasting
BBC News - The power of intermittent fasting
growth hormone called IGF-1, high levels of which seem to lead to accelerated ageing and age-related diseases, while low levels are protective
A similar, but natural, genetic mutation has been found in humans with Laron syndrome, a rare condition that affects fewer than 350 people worldwide. The very low levels of IGF-1 their bodies produce means they are short, but this also seems to protect them against cancer and diabetes, two common age-related diseases.
The IGF-1 hormone (insulin-like growth factor) is one of the drivers which keep our bodies in go-go mode, with cells driven to reproduce. This is fine when you are growing, but not so good later in life.
There is now evidence suggesting that IGF-1 levels can be lowered by what you eat. Studies on calorie restrictors suggest that eating less helps, but it is not enough
As well as cutting calories you have to cut your protein intake. Not entirely - that would be a very bad idea. It's about sticking to recommended guidelines, something most of us fail to do.
The reason seems to be that when our bodies no longer have access to food they switch from "growth mode" to "repair mode".
As levels of the IGF-1 hormone drop, a number of repair genes appear to get switched on according to ongoing research by Professor Valter Longo of the University of Southern California.
One area of current research into diet is Alternate Day fasting (ADF), involving eating what you want one day, then a very restricted diet (fewer than 600 calories) the next, and most surprisingly, it does not seem to matter that much what you eat on non-fast days.
"If you were sticking to your fast days, then in terms of cardiovascular disease risk, it didn't seem to matter if you were eating a high-fat or low-fat diet on your feed (non-fast) days," she said.
growth hormone called IGF-1, high levels of which seem to lead to accelerated ageing and age-related diseases, while low levels are protective
A similar, but natural, genetic mutation has been found in humans with Laron syndrome, a rare condition that affects fewer than 350 people worldwide. The very low levels of IGF-1 their bodies produce means they are short, but this also seems to protect them against cancer and diabetes, two common age-related diseases.
The IGF-1 hormone (insulin-like growth factor) is one of the drivers which keep our bodies in go-go mode, with cells driven to reproduce. This is fine when you are growing, but not so good later in life.
There is now evidence suggesting that IGF-1 levels can be lowered by what you eat. Studies on calorie restrictors suggest that eating less helps, but it is not enough
As well as cutting calories you have to cut your protein intake. Not entirely - that would be a very bad idea. It's about sticking to recommended guidelines, something most of us fail to do.
The reason seems to be that when our bodies no longer have access to food they switch from "growth mode" to "repair mode".
As levels of the IGF-1 hormone drop, a number of repair genes appear to get switched on according to ongoing research by Professor Valter Longo of the University of Southern California.
One area of current research into diet is Alternate Day fasting (ADF), involving eating what you want one day, then a very restricted diet (fewer than 600 calories) the next, and most surprisingly, it does not seem to matter that much what you eat on non-fast days.
"If you were sticking to your fast days, then in terms of cardiovascular disease risk, it didn't seem to matter if you were eating a high-fat or low-fat diet on your feed (non-fast) days," she said.
Friday, August 10, 2012
'Selfish' DNA in animal mitochondria offers possible tool to study aging | Science Codex
'Selfish' DNA in animal mitochondria offers possible tool to study aging | Science Codex
Researchers at Oregon State University have discovered, for the first time in any animal species, a type of "selfish" mitochondrial DNA that is actually hurting the organism and lessening its chance to survive – and bears a strong similarity to some damage done to human cells as they age.
Such selfish mitochondrial DNA has been found before in plants, but not animals. In this case, the discovery was made almost by accident during some genetic research being done on a nematode, Caenorhabditis briggsae – a type of small roundworm.
The mitochondria generally act for the benefit of the cell, even though it is somewhat separate. But the "selfish" DNA found in some plant mitochondria – and now in animals – has major differences. It tends to copy itself faster than other DNA, has no function useful to the cell, and in some cases actually harms the cell. In plants, for instance, it can affect flowering and sometimes cause sterility.
"Worms with it had less offspring than those without, they had less muscle activity. It might suggest that natural selection doesn't work very well in this species."
What's also interesting, they say, is that the defects this selfish DNA cause in this roundworm are surprisingly similar to the decayed mitochondrial DNA that accumulates as one aspect of human aging. More of the selfish DNA is also found in the worms as they age.
Researchers at Oregon State University have discovered, for the first time in any animal species, a type of "selfish" mitochondrial DNA that is actually hurting the organism and lessening its chance to survive – and bears a strong similarity to some damage done to human cells as they age.
Such selfish mitochondrial DNA has been found before in plants, but not animals. In this case, the discovery was made almost by accident during some genetic research being done on a nematode, Caenorhabditis briggsae – a type of small roundworm.
The mitochondria generally act for the benefit of the cell, even though it is somewhat separate. But the "selfish" DNA found in some plant mitochondria – and now in animals – has major differences. It tends to copy itself faster than other DNA, has no function useful to the cell, and in some cases actually harms the cell. In plants, for instance, it can affect flowering and sometimes cause sterility.
"Worms with it had less offspring than those without, they had less muscle activity. It might suggest that natural selection doesn't work very well in this species."
What's also interesting, they say, is that the defects this selfish DNA cause in this roundworm are surprisingly similar to the decayed mitochondrial DNA that accumulates as one aspect of human aging. More of the selfish DNA is also found in the worms as they age.
Protein That Slows Aging May Protect Against Diabetes
Protein That Slows Aging May Protect Against Diabetes
The research team put mice on a high-fat diet and realized that they started to develop metabolic disorders, like diabetes, when they lacked the protein, while normal mice given the same diet did not develop these disorders as quickly.
While the expert studied yeast in the 1990s, he first discovered the effects of SIRT1 and other sirtuin proteins. These proteins have since shown to help keep cells alive and healthy by coordinating a variety of hormonal networks, regulatory proteins, and other genes.
These results suggest that the development of metabolic disorders is a two-step process in normal mice. He said, "This first step is inactivation of SIRT1 by the high-fat diet, and the second step is all the bad things that follow that."
As normal mice grew older, the researchers discovered that they became more susceptible to the effects of a high-fat diet than younger mice, showing that the protective effects of SIRT disappear as they age. Knowing that inflammation increases with age, Guarente is now researching if age-related inflammation also provokes SIRT1 loss.
The research team put mice on a high-fat diet and realized that they started to develop metabolic disorders, like diabetes, when they lacked the protein, while normal mice given the same diet did not develop these disorders as quickly.
While the expert studied yeast in the 1990s, he first discovered the effects of SIRT1 and other sirtuin proteins. These proteins have since shown to help keep cells alive and healthy by coordinating a variety of hormonal networks, regulatory proteins, and other genes.
These results suggest that the development of metabolic disorders is a two-step process in normal mice. He said, "This first step is inactivation of SIRT1 by the high-fat diet, and the second step is all the bad things that follow that."
As normal mice grew older, the researchers discovered that they became more susceptible to the effects of a high-fat diet than younger mice, showing that the protective effects of SIRT disappear as they age. Knowing that inflammation increases with age, Guarente is now researching if age-related inflammation also provokes SIRT1 loss.
Thursday, August 9, 2012
The highest respect one can pay to another’s idea!
"No great thinker was ever celebrated for his unbelievable ability to 'respect' everyone’s awful ideas and defer to those who held them. The highest respect one can pay to another’s idea is to scrutinize it and explain what might be wrong. This is what 'respect' means in the intellectual domain." - Spencer Mulesky
Wednesday, August 8, 2012
Why then should the same race not produce those leaders?
The human race had the wisdom to create science and art; why should it not be capable to create a world of justice, brotherliness and peace? The human race has produced Plato, Homer, Shakespeare, and Hugo, Michelangelo and Beethoven, Pascal and Newton, all these human heroes whose genius is only the contact with the fundamental truths, with the innermost essence of the universe. Why then should the same race not produce those leaders capable of leading it to those forms of communal life which are closest to the lives
and the harmony of the universe?
LEON BLUM
and the harmony of the universe?
LEON BLUM
Throughout life one must learn to die!
There exists no more difficult art than living. For other arts and sciences, numerous teachers are to be found everywhere. Even young people believe that they have acquired these in such a way, that they can teach them to others: throughout the whole of life, one must continue to learn to live and, what will amaze you even more, throughout life one must learn to die.
SENECA
SENECA
Saturday, August 4, 2012
‘Eve-olution’ – natural selection may help women live longer
‘Eve-olution’ – natural selection may help women live longer - Health News - NHS Choices
But mitochondrial DNA is different in that only females pass on their mitochondria to their offspring.
This is thought to be responsible for an effect that has been termed as the ‘Mother’s Curse’ by geneticists.
The ‘curse’ is that mutations in mitochondrial DNA that are harmful to females will be filtered out by the process of natural selection. Women with beneficial mutations are more likely to survive and reproduce than women with harmful mutations.
But men are essentially an evolutionary ‘dead end’ for mitochondrial DNA. There is no evolutionary pressure filtering out mutations that are harmful to males, while at same time, promoting ‘useful male’ mutations.
Mitochondria are also thought to play a role in aging in the cell as they produce free radicals which can damage the cell, believed to be one part of aging.
women’s mitochondrial DNA could accumulate mutations which are beneficial to her, or do her little or no harm, but are detrimental in a male, including mutations that contribute to making men age faster than women. As males do not pass on mitochondria to their offspring, it would not be possible for mutations that are detrimental to males to be gradually filtered out through natural selection.
The researchers concluded that they had shown that mitochondrial DNA contains variations that affect male aging specifically and not females.
But mitochondrial DNA is different in that only females pass on their mitochondria to their offspring.
This is thought to be responsible for an effect that has been termed as the ‘Mother’s Curse’ by geneticists.
The ‘curse’ is that mutations in mitochondrial DNA that are harmful to females will be filtered out by the process of natural selection. Women with beneficial mutations are more likely to survive and reproduce than women with harmful mutations.
But men are essentially an evolutionary ‘dead end’ for mitochondrial DNA. There is no evolutionary pressure filtering out mutations that are harmful to males, while at same time, promoting ‘useful male’ mutations.
Mitochondria are also thought to play a role in aging in the cell as they produce free radicals which can damage the cell, believed to be one part of aging.
women’s mitochondrial DNA could accumulate mutations which are beneficial to her, or do her little or no harm, but are detrimental in a male, including mutations that contribute to making men age faster than women. As males do not pass on mitochondria to their offspring, it would not be possible for mutations that are detrimental to males to be gradually filtered out through natural selection.
The researchers concluded that they had shown that mitochondrial DNA contains variations that affect male aging specifically and not females.
In fly DNA, the footprint of a fly virus
In fly DNA, the footprint of a fly virus | e! Science News
In a curious evolutionary twist, several species of a commonly studied fruit fly appear to have incorporated genetic material from a virus into their genomes
The study found that several types of fruit fly -- scientific name Drosophila -- harbored genes similar to those that code for the sigma virus, a fly virus in the same family as rabies. The authors believe the genetic information was acquired during past viral infections and passed on from fruit fly parent to offspring through many generations.
The discovery could open the door for research on why flies and other organisms selectively retain viral genes -- dubbed "fossil" genes -- through evolution
One hypothesis is that viral genes provide an anti-viral defense, but scientists have had trouble testing this theory because viral genes found in animals are often millions of years old -- ancient enough that the genes' genetic sequence differs significantly from that of modern-day viruses.
The new study, in contrast, uncovered a viral gene that appears to be relatively young, with genetic material closely mirroring that of a modern sigma virus.
The sigma virus belongs to a class of RNA viruses that lack an important enzyme, reverse transcriptase, that enables other viruses to convert their genetic material into DNA for integration into host genomes.
The new study supplies one possible answer, suggesting that viruses may use reverse transcriptase present in host cells to facilitate incorporation of viral genes into host DNA.
The position and context of the viral gene suggests that the retrotransposon made a copying error and copied and pasted virus genes into the fly genome. This is the clearest evidence yet that non-retroviral RNA virus genes naturally enter host genomes by the action of enzymes already present in the cell
In a curious evolutionary twist, several species of a commonly studied fruit fly appear to have incorporated genetic material from a virus into their genomes
The study found that several types of fruit fly -- scientific name Drosophila -- harbored genes similar to those that code for the sigma virus, a fly virus in the same family as rabies. The authors believe the genetic information was acquired during past viral infections and passed on from fruit fly parent to offspring through many generations.
The discovery could open the door for research on why flies and other organisms selectively retain viral genes -- dubbed "fossil" genes -- through evolution
One hypothesis is that viral genes provide an anti-viral defense, but scientists have had trouble testing this theory because viral genes found in animals are often millions of years old -- ancient enough that the genes' genetic sequence differs significantly from that of modern-day viruses.
The new study, in contrast, uncovered a viral gene that appears to be relatively young, with genetic material closely mirroring that of a modern sigma virus.
The sigma virus belongs to a class of RNA viruses that lack an important enzyme, reverse transcriptase, that enables other viruses to convert their genetic material into DNA for integration into host genomes.
The new study supplies one possible answer, suggesting that viruses may use reverse transcriptase present in host cells to facilitate incorporation of viral genes into host DNA.
The position and context of the viral gene suggests that the retrotransposon made a copying error and copied and pasted virus genes into the fly genome. This is the clearest evidence yet that non-retroviral RNA virus genes naturally enter host genomes by the action of enzymes already present in the cell
Light created in the sun takes 4,000 years to reach the Earth
Light created in the sun takes 4,000 years to reach the Earth
Many people are under the impression that light created in the sun takes eight minutes to reach the Earth. Not so. The light we're seeing could be anywhere from 4,000 to a million years old.
Yes, any light streaming out from the surface of the sun does make it to the Earth in under ten minutes, but that light didn't begin its journey at the surface of the sun.
It's deep within the sun that most of its light gets made from the fusion of hydrogen nuclei. Hydrogen nuclei don't fuse unless they're shoved together by immense heat and pressure, and so the inside of the sun is pretty dense. It's so dense that even photons take a while to get out of it. Visible light photons only move at the Googlable speed of light in a vacuum. Anywhere else, they are absorbed and re-emitted, are turned different directions and scattered, and generally interact with the substance through which they are moving. So while photons streaming from the surface of the sun can make an uninterrupted run straight to Earth, photons in the sun have to take baby steps of between one millimeter and one centimeter to get anywhere. If it were just a matter of pausing at each step, the photon wouldn't slow down too much, but each time they interact, they are sent out in a completely random direction. This means that, after taking a single step away from the fused atom that birthed them, the photon's second step can send it right back again.
The radius of the sun is about 696,000 kilometers. That's about 69,600,000,000 centimeters, which then needs to be squared to approximately 5 x 10^21 centimeter-long steps taken at the speed of light. Taking those steps means that lights breaks the surface, at most, an average of 4,000 years after it was created. There are a lot of fudge factors involved. The sun isn't equally dense all the way through. Some people imagine that the steps taken will be shorter - and taking it down to millimeters instead of centimeters changes the time from thousands of years to tens of thousands of years - or that the substance it moves through will involve more steps. And so the values for light to reach the Earth from the sun stretch from the conservative four thousand years and eight minutes, to the rather liberal one million years and eight minutes.
Many people are under the impression that light created in the sun takes eight minutes to reach the Earth. Not so. The light we're seeing could be anywhere from 4,000 to a million years old.
Yes, any light streaming out from the surface of the sun does make it to the Earth in under ten minutes, but that light didn't begin its journey at the surface of the sun.
It's deep within the sun that most of its light gets made from the fusion of hydrogen nuclei. Hydrogen nuclei don't fuse unless they're shoved together by immense heat and pressure, and so the inside of the sun is pretty dense. It's so dense that even photons take a while to get out of it. Visible light photons only move at the Googlable speed of light in a vacuum. Anywhere else, they are absorbed and re-emitted, are turned different directions and scattered, and generally interact with the substance through which they are moving. So while photons streaming from the surface of the sun can make an uninterrupted run straight to Earth, photons in the sun have to take baby steps of between one millimeter and one centimeter to get anywhere. If it were just a matter of pausing at each step, the photon wouldn't slow down too much, but each time they interact, they are sent out in a completely random direction. This means that, after taking a single step away from the fused atom that birthed them, the photon's second step can send it right back again.
The radius of the sun is about 696,000 kilometers. That's about 69,600,000,000 centimeters, which then needs to be squared to approximately 5 x 10^21 centimeter-long steps taken at the speed of light. Taking those steps means that lights breaks the surface, at most, an average of 4,000 years after it was created. There are a lot of fudge factors involved. The sun isn't equally dense all the way through. Some people imagine that the steps taken will be shorter - and taking it down to millimeters instead of centimeters changes the time from thousands of years to tens of thousands of years - or that the substance it moves through will involve more steps. And so the values for light to reach the Earth from the sun stretch from the conservative four thousand years and eight minutes, to the rather liberal one million years and eight minutes.
Thursday, August 2, 2012
You think your pain and your heartbreak are unprecedented!
You think your pain and your heartbreak are unprecedented in the history of the world, but then you read.
James Baldwin
Wednesday, August 1, 2012
Improvement of intelligence rather than of morals!
“[T]he evils of the world are due to moral defects quite as much as to lack of intelligence. But the human race has not hitherto discovered any method of eradicating moral defects . . . Intelligence, on the contrary, is easily improved by
methods known to every competent educator. Therefore, until some method of teaching virtue has been discovered, progress will have to be sought by improvement of intelligence rather than of morals.”
Bertrand Russell
The aim of argument!
“ The aim of argument, or of discussion, should not be victory but progress.”
Karl Popper
The chosen vehicle of all ambiguities!
A smile is the chosen vehicle of all ambiguities.
Herman Melville
Water-fuelled car
Water-fuelled car - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A water-fuelled car is a hypothetical automobile that derives its energy directly from water. Water-fuelled cars have been the subject of numerous international patents, newspaper and popular science magazine articles, local television news coverage, and the Internet. The claims for these devices have been found to be incorrect and some were found to be tied to investment frauds.[1][2][3][4] These vehicles may be claimed to produce fuel from water on board with no other energy input, or may be a hybrid of sorts claiming to get energy from both water and a conventional source (such as gasoline).
The process of electrolysis, discussed below, would split water into hydrogen and oxygen, but it takes as much energy to take apart a water molecule as was released when the hydrogen was oxidized to form water. In fact, some energy would be lost in converting water to hydrogen and then burning the hydrogen because some heat would always be produced in the conversions. Releasing chemical energy from water, in excess or in equal proportion to the energy required to facilitate such production, would therefore violate the first and/or second laws of thermodynamics.
According to the currently accepted laws of physics, there is no way to extract chemical energy from water alone. Most proposed water fuelled cars rely on some form of electrolysis to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen and then recombine them to release energy; however, because the energy required to separate the elements will always be at least as great as the energy released, this cannot be used to produce net energy.
A number of websites exist promoting the use of oxyhydrogen (which they often refer to as "HHO"), selling plans for do-it-yourself electrolysers or entire kits with the promise of large improvements in fuel efficiency. According to a spokesman for the American Automobile Association, "All of these devices look like they could probably work for you, but let me tell you they don't."
In addition to claims of cars that run exclusively on water, there have also been claims that burning hydrogen or oxyhydrogen in addition to petrol or diesel fuel increases mileage. Whether such Hydrogen On Demand systems actually improve emissions or fuel efficiency is debated.[40]
A water-fuelled car is a hypothetical automobile that derives its energy directly from water. Water-fuelled cars have been the subject of numerous international patents, newspaper and popular science magazine articles, local television news coverage, and the Internet. The claims for these devices have been found to be incorrect and some were found to be tied to investment frauds.[1][2][3][4] These vehicles may be claimed to produce fuel from water on board with no other energy input, or may be a hybrid of sorts claiming to get energy from both water and a conventional source (such as gasoline).
The process of electrolysis, discussed below, would split water into hydrogen and oxygen, but it takes as much energy to take apart a water molecule as was released when the hydrogen was oxidized to form water. In fact, some energy would be lost in converting water to hydrogen and then burning the hydrogen because some heat would always be produced in the conversions. Releasing chemical energy from water, in excess or in equal proportion to the energy required to facilitate such production, would therefore violate the first and/or second laws of thermodynamics.
According to the currently accepted laws of physics, there is no way to extract chemical energy from water alone. Most proposed water fuelled cars rely on some form of electrolysis to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen and then recombine them to release energy; however, because the energy required to separate the elements will always be at least as great as the energy released, this cannot be used to produce net energy.
A number of websites exist promoting the use of oxyhydrogen (which they often refer to as "HHO"), selling plans for do-it-yourself electrolysers or entire kits with the promise of large improvements in fuel efficiency. According to a spokesman for the American Automobile Association, "All of these devices look like they could probably work for you, but let me tell you they don't."
In addition to claims of cars that run exclusively on water, there have also been claims that burning hydrogen or oxyhydrogen in addition to petrol or diesel fuel increases mileage. Whether such Hydrogen On Demand systems actually improve emissions or fuel efficiency is debated.[40]
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)